Essay/Term paper: The united nations

Essay, term paper, research paper:  Political Science

The United Nations


The United Nations is an organization of sovereign nations not a world
government. It provides the machinery to help find solutions to disputes or
problems, and to deal with virtually any matter of concern to humanity.
It does not legislate like a national parliament. But in the meeting
rooms and corridors of the UN, representatives of almost all countries of the
world large and small, rich and poor, with varying political views and social
systems have a voice and vote in shaping the policies of the international
community. The year 1995 marks the Fiftieth Anniversary of the Organization.
The UN has six main organs, listed below. All are based at UN
Headquarters in New York, except the International Court of Justice, which is
located at The Hague, Netherlands.

The General Assembly

The General Assembly, sometimes called the nearest thing to a world
parliament, is the main deliberative body. All Member States are represented in
it, and each has one vote. Decisions on ordinary matters are taken by simple
majority. Important questions require a two-thirds majority.
The Assembly holds its regular sessions from mid-September to mid-
December; special or emergency sessions are held when necessary. Even when the
Assembly is not in session, its work goes on in special committees and bodies.
The Assembly has the right to discuss and make recommendations on all
matters within the scope of the UN Charter. It has no power to compel action by
any Government, but its recommendations carry the weight of world opinion. The
Assembly also sets policies and determines programmes for the UN Secretariat. It
sets goals and directs activities for development, approves the budget of peace-
keeping operations and calls for world conferences on major issues. Occupying a
central position in the UN, the Assembly receives reports from other organs,
admits new Members, approves the budget and appoints the Secretary-General.

The Security Council

The UN Charter, an international treaty, obligates States to settle
their international disputes by peaceful means. They are to refrain from the
threat or use of force against other States, and may bring any dispute before
the Security Council. The Security Council is the organ to which the Charter
gives primary responsibility for maintaining peace and security. It can be
convened at any time, whenever peace is threatened. Member States are obligated
to carry out its decisions. The Council has 15 members. Five of these China,
France, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom and the United States are
permanent members. The other 10 are elected by the Assembly for two-year terms.
Decisions require nine votes; except in votes on procedural questions, a
decision cannot be taken if there is a negative vote by a permanent member
(known as the "veto").
When a threat to international peace is brought before the Council, it
usually first asks the parties to reach agreement by peaceful means. The Council
may undertake mediation or set forth principles for a settlement. It may request
the Secretary-General to investigate and report on a situation. If fighting
breaks out, the Council tries to secure a cease-fire. It may send peace-keeping
missions to troubled areas, with the consent of the parties involved, to reduce
tension and keep opposing forces apart. It may deploy peace-keepers to prevent
the outbreak of conflict. It has the power to enforce its decisions by imposing
economic sanctions and by ordering collective military action. The Council also
makes recommendations to the Assembly on a candidate for Secretary-General and
on the admission of new Members to the UN.

The Economic and Social Council

Working under the authority of the General Assembly, the Economic and
Social Council coordinates the economic and social work of the UN and related
specialized agencies and institutions. The Council has 54 members. It usually
holds two organizational and one substantive session each year; the substantive
session includes a high-level special meeting, attended by Ministers and other
high officials, to discuss major economic and social issues.
The Council recommends and directs activities aimed, for instance, at
promoting economic growth of developing countries, administering development
projects, promoting the observance of human rights, ending discrimination
against minorities, spreading the benefits of science and technology, and
fostering world cooperation in areas such as better housing, family planning and
crime prevention.

The Trusteeship Council

The Trusteeship Council was established to ensure that Governments
responsible for administering Trust Territories take adequate steps to prepare
them for self-government or independence. In 1994, the Security Council
terminated the UN Trusteeship Agreement for the last of the original 11
Trusteeships the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands (Palau), administered by
the United States. The task of the Trusteeship System was thus completed, with
all Trust Territories attaining self-government or independence, either as
separate States or by joining neighbouring independent countries. The
Trusteeship Council, by amending its rules of procedure, will now meet as and
where occasion may require.

The International Court of Justice

The International Court of Justice (also known as the World Court) is
the main judicial organ of the UN. It consists of 15 judges elected by the
General Assembly and the Security Council. Only countries may be parties in
cases brought before the Court. If a country does not wish to take part in a
proceeding it does not have to do so (unless required by special treaty
provisions), but if it accepts, it is obligated to comply with the Court's
decision.

The Secretariat

The Secretariat works for all the other organs of the UN and administers
their programmes. Made up of a staff working at Headquarters and all over the
world, it carries out the day-to-day work of the UN. At its head is the
Secretary-General. Staff members are drawn from some 170 countries.

WHAT THE UN DOES FOR PEACE . . .

Throughout its 50 years of existence, a central purpose of the UN has
been to preserve world peace. The UN has helped resolve disputes between nations,
reduce tensions, prevent conflicts and put an end to fighting. It has carried
out complex operations involving peacemaking, peace-keeping and humanitarian
assistance. It has thus played a major role in resolving some of the most
protracted conflicts of recent years. The means at its disposal to bring about
peace are varied: a Security Council decision ordering a cease-fire and laying
down guidelines for settling a dispute . . . good offices of the Secretary-
General . . . a compromise worked out by a mediator . . . unpublicized
diplomatic approaches during informal encounters . . . dispatch of a fact-
finding team . . . observer missions or peace-keeping forces made up of
contingents from Member States under the command of the UN.
The demand for UN peace-keeping has increased dramatically, with 21 new
operations in 1988-1994, compared with 13 over the previous 40 years.
In early 1995, about 69,000 UN troops, military observers and civilian
police, provided by 77 countries, were deployed in various areas of the world.
More than 720,000 military personnel have served with the UN forces since 1948,
and more than 1,100 peace-keepers have lost their lives. Many thousands of
civilians have also served.

. . . in Somalia

The civil war that broke out in 1991 resulted in more than 300,000
people dead and five million threatened by hunger. The UN helped eliminate mass
starvation, stop the large-scale killings and bring a bitter conflict to an end.
It established in April 1992 the UN Operation in Somalia (UNOSOM), followed in
December by the Unified Task Force, led by the United States. As a result, the
level of killings, starvation and malnutrition fell dramatically. In 1993, a new
UN Operation (UNOSOM II) replaced the Unified Task Force. UNOSOM II sought to
restore order, promote reconciliation and help rebuild Somalia's civil society
and economy; its mandate ended in March 1995. Various UN agencies are at work,
under difficult conditions, to provide humanitarian assistance.

. . . in Mozambique

The UN has helped secure peace in Mozambique. In 1992, to facilitate
implementation of the peace agreement between the Government and the Mozambican
National Resistance (RENAMO), the Security Council set up the UN Operation in
Mozambique (ONUMOZ). ONUMOZ monitored the cease-fire, verified the
demobilization of combatants, coordinated humanitarian aid and monitored in 1994
the country's first multi-party elections, which led to the peaceful
installation of a new Government. ONUMOZ successfully completed its mission in
January 1995.

. . . in Cambodia

The UN helped end the 12-year conflict in Cambodia. The Secretary-
General over the years exercised his good offices in the search for peace, and
in 1988 presented proposals for a political settlement. High-level meetings of
the five permanent members of the Security Council led to the signing in 1991 of
the Agreements on Cambodia a peace treaty to end the conflict and prepare the
country for elections. The Agreements assigned the UN an unprecedented role. A
large operation, the UN Transitional Authority in Cambodia (UNTAC), was set up
to supervise the cease-fire, disarm combatants, repatriate refugees, and
organize and conduct free and fair elections. The May 1993 elections led to the
peaceful installation of a new Government in September 1993, thus successfully
fulfilling UNTAC's task.

. . . in Iran and Iraq

The UN was instrumental in ending the eight-year war between Iran and
Iraq. Intensive mediation efforts by the Security Council and the Secretary-
General led in August 1988 to a cease-fire and to the acceptance by both
countries of a 1987 UN peace plan. After the cease-fire, the UN military
observers of the UN Iran-Iraq Military Observer Group (UNIIMOG) were deployed
between the two opposing armies to supervise the end of the hostilities and
troop withdrawal. UNIIMOG completed its task in 1991.

. . . in Afghanistan

The UN played a similar peacemaking role in Afghanistan. As a result of
six years of negotiations conducted by a personal envoy of the Secretary-General,
Afghanistan, Pakistan, the Soviet Union and the United States signed in April
1988 agreements aiming at a settlement of the conflict. To verify compliance
with the agreements, the UN deployed the observers of the UN Good Offices
Mission in Afghanistan and Pakistan. Soviet troop withdrawal was completed on
schedule in 1989, thus fulfilling the Mission's task. The Secretary-General and
his personal envoy have continued to work for a peaceful settlement in
Afghanistan.

. . . in Central America

The UN has helped resolve the conflicts in Central America. The UN
Observer Group in Central America (ONUCA), in place between 1989 and 1992,
monitored security commitments undertaken by five Central American countries. It
also helped demobilize some 22,000 members of the Nicaraguan resistance (also
known as "contras"), who in March-June 1990 turned in their weapons to ONUCA.
Another UN mission monitored the February 1990 elections in Nicaragua the
first UN-monitored elections in an independent country.
In El Salvador, the Secretary-General assisted in talks between the
Government and the Farabundo Mart¡ National Liberation Front (FMLN) aimed at
ending the 12-year conflict. The Secretary-General's mediation led to the 1992
peace agreement between the Government and FMLN, which ended the conflict and
opened the way to national reconciliation. The UN Observer Mission in El
Salvador monitored all agreements concluded between the Government and FMLN, and
observed the 1994 elections. In Guatemala, the UN supervised talks between the
Government and the Guatemalan National Revolutionary Unity (URNG), which led in
1994 to two agreements opening the way to a settlement of the 30-year conflict.
In November 1994, the UN set up a Mission for the Verification of Human Rights
in Guatemala.

. . . in Haiti

In 1990, the UN monitored the first democratic elections in Haiti, which
led to the installation of a Government headed by President Jean-Bertrand
Aristide. After a military coup in 1991 forced Mr. Aristide into exile, the UN
mediated an agreement for the return to democracy. In the absence of further
progress, the Security Council authorized in 1994 the formation of a
multinational force and the use of all necessary means to facilitate the
departure of the military leaders. After the landing of the United States led
multinational force, President Aristide returned to Haiti in October 1994. A UN
peace-keeping force, the UN Mission in Haiti, is in place to sustain the secure
and stable environment established by the multinational force.

. . . in the former Yugoslavia

The UN has strenuously sought to resolve the conflict in the former
Yugoslavia. To help restore peace, the UN imposed in 1991 an arms embargo, while
the Secretary-General and his envoy assisted in seeking a solution to the crisis.
A peace-keeping force, the UN Protection Force (UNPROFOR), deployed in 1992,
sought to create conditions of peace and security in Croatia, facilitated the
delivery of humanitarian relief in Bosnia and Herzegovina, and helped ensure
that the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia was not drawn into the conflict.
In 1995, UNPROFOR was split into three operations covering the three countries.
As UN-sponsored negotiations continued, the UN peace-keeping forces and UN
agencies sought to maintain cease-fires, protect the population and provide
humanitarian assistance.

. . . in the Middle East

The Middle East has long been a major concern to the UN. In 1948 a
military observer group, the UN Truce Supervision Organization (UNTSO), was set
up to monitor the truce called for by the Security Council during the first
Arab-Israeli war. UNTSO's functions have evolved, but its military observers
have remained in the area, helping to defuse tension. A peace-keeping force, the
UN Emergency Force, was created in 1956 at the time of the Suez crisis. It
oversaw the withdrawal of British, French and Israeli troops and contributed to
peace and stability in the region. After the 1973 war, two peace-keeping forces
were dispatched to the Middle East. The second UN Emergency Force remained in
the Sinai until 1979, when an Egyptian-Israeli peace treaty was signed. The UN
Disengagement Observer Force, deployed on the Golan Heights in 1974, maintains
an area of separation there between Israeli and Syrian troops. The UN Interim
Force in Lebanon, created in 1978, contributes to stability in southern Lebanon
and provides protection to the population of the area. Hand in hand with its
peace-keeping activities, the UN has made continuous efforts to find a peaceful
settlement in the Middle East. Security Council resolutions 242 (1967) and 338
(1973) set forth the principles for a comprehensive, just and lasting peace and
remain the basis for an overall settlement. The UN Secretary-General warmly
welcomed, in September 1993, the exchange of letters of mutual recognition
between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization, and the signing by
both sides of the Declaration of Principles on Interim Self-Government
Arrangements. A UN Special Coordinator oversees the development assistance
provided by the UN system to the Palestinian people in Gaza and the West Bank.

Other operations

In early 1995, UN "blue helmets" were also present in many other
troubled areas. UN missions were seeking to contribute to security and help
achieve reconciliation in Rwanda (UNAMIR, established 1993), bring peace to
Angola (UNAVEM, 1989), supervise a referendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO, 1991)
and promote a return to normal conditions in Cyprus (UNFICYP, 1964).
Military observers were in place in Tajikistan (UNMOT, established 1994),
in Liberia (UNOMIL, 1993), in Georgia (UNOMIG, 1993), at the Iraq-Kuwait border
(UNIKOM, 1991), and in the State of Jammu and Kashmir, at the cease-fire line
between India and Pakistan (UNMOGIP, 1949).

The Secretary-General's role

The Secretary-General plays a central role in peacemaking, both
personally and by appointing Special Representatives or teams for specific goals,
such as negotiation or fact- finding. He may also bring to the attention of the
Security Council any matter which appears to threaten international peace and
security. The Secretary- General wasinstrumental in averting a threat to peace
during the 1962 Cuban missile crisis, in securing through his Special
Representative the 1965 cease-fire in the Dominican Republic and in proposing,
with the Chairman of the Organization of African Unity, the 1988 peace plan for
Western Sahara, which led to a cease-fire there in 1991.

Disarmament

Halting the arms race and reducing and eventually eliminating all
weapons of war are major concerns of the UN. The UN has been a permanent forum
for holding disarmament negotiations, making recommendations and initiating
studies. Negotiations have been held bilaterally and through international
bodies such as the Conference on Disarmament, which meets regularly in Geneva.
Under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT), ratified by
over 170 countries, nuclear-weapon States agree not to provide nuclear weapons
to other countries and to pursue nuclear disarmament; non-nuclear weapon States
agree not to develop or obtain nuclear weapons. Concluded under UN auspices, the
Treaty came into force in 1970. A major step in advancing non-proliferation was
taken in 1995, when a Review Conference extended the Treaty indefinitely. Other
treaties have been concluded to ban nuclear-weapon tests in the atmosphere, in
outer space and under water (1963); ban nuclear weapons from outer space (1967),
the sea-bed and ocean floor (1971); prohibit the development, production and
stockpiling of bacteriological weapons (1972) and of chemical weapons (1992);
reduce conventional armed forces in Europe (1990); and ban or restrict other
classes of weapons.

WHAT THE UN DOES FOR JUSTICE . . .

The Charter goals of justice and equal rights, for individuals and for
peoples, have been pursued by the UN from its early days. As one of its first
tasks, the UN formulated the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, a historic
proclamation of the basic rights and freedoms to which all men and women are
entitled the right to life, liberty and nationality, to freedom of thought,
conscience and religion, to work, to be educated, to take part in government,
and many other rights.
The Declaration was adopted by the General Assembly on 10 December 1948,
a date commemorated every year as Human Rights Day. Two International Covenants
one on economic, social and cultural rights and the other on civil and political
rights which expand and make legally binding the rights set forth in the
Declaration came into force in 1976. These three documents constitute the
International Bill of Human Rights, a standard and a goal for all countries and
peoples. Many other international conventions have been concluded under UN
auspices on women's rights, racial discrimination, the rights of children and
many other human rights.
The UN Commission on Human Rights is the only intergovernmental body
that conducts public meetings on violations of human rights wherever they occur
in the world. It reviews the human rights performance of countries and receives
complaints about violations. Special Rapporteurs of the Commission monitor the
human rights situation in specific countries.
The UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, first appointed in 1994,
coordinates the human rights activities of the UN system, dispatches fact-
-finding missions and investigates violations. UN operations are currently
monitoring the human rights situation in Haiti and Guatemala. A similar
operation was in place in El Salvador from 1991 to 1995.

Self-determination and independence

One of the most important rights self-determination, or the right of
peoples to govern themselves was a goal when the Charter was signed. Today it
has become a reality in most of the lands formerly under colonial rule.
In 1960, the General Assembly adopted the Declaration on the Granting of
Independence to Colonial Countries and Peoples, in which it proclaimed the
necessity of bringing colonialism to a speedy end. Since then, some 60 former
colonial Territories, inhabited by more than 80 million people, have attained
independence and joined the UN as sovereign Members. Now, as the UN celebrates
its Fiftieth Anniversary, only 17 Non-Self- Governing Territories remain. The
Assembly has set the goal of ending colonialism by the year 2000, declaring the
period 1990-2000 as the International Decade for the Eradication of Colonialism.

Namibia's independence

The UN helped bring about the independence of Namibia. It assumed direct
responsibility for Namibia in 1966, when the General Assembly revoked South
Africa's Mandate to administer the Territory a decision South Africa rejected.
Complex negotiations led in 1989 to the implementation of the 1978 UN plan for
the independence of Namibia. The UN Transition Assistance Group was deployed
throughout Namibia to monitor the withdrawal of South African troops and the
registration of some 700,000 voters, as well as the elections, held in November
1989. The elections led to the installation of the first independent Government,
and to Namibia's independence in 1990.

Election monitoring

At Government request, the UN also dispatched electoral observers to
monitor elections in Nicaragua (1990), Haiti (1990), Angola (1992), El Salvador,
South Africa and Mozambique (1994). The observers monitored the preparation and
holding of the elections. On election day, they visited polling stations
throughout the country and monitored vote counting, and could thus certify that
the elections had been free and fair. UN observers also monitored the 1993
referendum in Eritrea. In addition, since 1992 the UN has provided technical
assistance in the preparation and holding of elections to more than 40 countries.


Apartheid

For more than three decades, the UN carried out a sustained campaign
against South Africa's apartheid (racial segregation) system, denounced by the
General Assembly as "a crime against humanity". The campaign, which ranged from
an arms embargo to a convention against segregated sports events, was an
important factor in bringing about a democratically elected Government, realized
in April 1994 with elections in which, for the first time, all South Africans
could vote. The UN Observer Mission in South Africa assisted in the transition
and observed the election. With the installation of a non-racial and democratic
Government in May 1994, the apartheid system came to an end.

International law

The UN has made major contributions towards expanding the rule of law
among nations through its codification and development of international law. The
International Court of Justice assists countries in solving legal disputes, and
has issued important advisory opinions on UN activities. The International Law
Commission works to further the development of international law. The UN has
initiated hundreds of international conventions and treaties, ranging from
agreements governing diplomatic relations and international trade to those to
protect the environment. The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women is the main legal instrument to further women's
equality. The Convention against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and
Psychotropic Substances is the key international treaty against drug trafficking.
The UN Convention on the Law of the Sea seeks to ensure equitable access by all
countries to the riches of the oceans, protect them from pollution and
facilitate freedom of navigation and research.

WHAT THE UN DOES FOR DEVELOPMENT

Lasting world peace requires social and economic development for all.
This link is recognized by the Charter, which assigns to the UN, as one of its
main functions, the promotion of higher standards of living, full employment and
economic and social progress. Thus a major part of UN work measured in terms of
budget and personnel involved goes into numerous programmes aimed at achieving a
better life for all people of the world.
Three fourths of the world's people live in developing countries, and
1.3 billion are living in abject poverty. While the world's 23 richest countries
taken together have a per capita income of $22,160, the 40 poorest countries
have a per capita income of $390 a ratio of 56 to 1.
The General Assembly has stressed the need to reshape international
economic relations so developing countries can take their just place in the
world economy. In a series of ten-year International Development Strategies
adopted since 1961, the Assembly has recommended measures to coordinate the
efforts of Governments and international organizations to reduce the gap between
rich and poor countries. The Assembly is now elaborating a blueprint for action
to promote international cooperation for development, on the basis of the 1994
report of the Secretary-General, An Agenda for Development.
A round of world conferences seeks to promote practical ways of solving
global problems, by focusing on Environment and Development (1992), Population
and Development (1994), Social Development (1995), the Advancement of Women
(1995), and Human Settlements (1996).

Assistance to development

In the forefront of efforts to bring about social and economic progress
is the UN Development Programme (UNDP). The UN's largest provider of grants for
technical assistance, and the chief coordinator of UN development cooperation,
UNDP focuses its programmes on eliminating poverty, creating employment,
advancing women's status and protecting the environment. With an annual budget
of about $1 billion, it works in 175 developing countries and territories. In
addition, UNDP-financed activities stimulate some $9 billion a year in follow-up
investment from public and private sources.
UNDP receives voluntary contributions from nearly every Government in
the world. Recipient Governments pay over half the costs involved in the
projects. The poorest countries receive 87 per cent of UNDP resources.
Among the many other programmes working for development is the UN
Children's Fund (UNICEF), currently carrying out assistance projects in 138
countries. Major areas of activity are immunization, primary health care,
nutrition and basic education. Total expenditures in 1994 amounted to an
estimated $972 million.
The UN Environment Programme (UNEP) works to encourage and coordinate
sound environmental practices everywhere. It supports environmental projects,
raises environmental awareness and promotes major environmental treaties.
Many other UN bodies are at work to foster development: among them are
the World Food Programme, the UN Population Fund, the UN Centre for Human
Settlements and the UN Conference on Trade and Development.

Humanitarian assistance

When countries are stricken by war, famine or natural disaster, the UN
helps provide humanitarian aid. Part of this aid is in the form of direct
assistance from the UN and its agencies, such as the World Food Programme and
UNICEF.
In 1994, the UN raised $1.9 billion for humanitarian assistance
operations.
The Office of the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) provides
international protection and material assistance (food, shelter, medical aid,
education) to the world's 23 million refugees, at the same time seeking durable
solutions to their plight. All UN emergency assistance is coordinated by the UN
Emergency Relief Coordinator, who heads the UN Department of Humanitarian
Affairs.

The specialized agencies

Fourteen specialized agencies work for development and international cooperation
in their areas of expertise:

International Labour Organization (ILO)
Food and Agriculture Organization of the UN (FAO)
UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
World Health Organization (WHO)
World Bank
International Monetary Fund (IMF)
International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)
Universal Postal Union (UPU)
International Telecommunication Union (ITU)
World Meteorological Organization (WMO)
International Maritime Organization (IMO)
World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO)
International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD)
UN Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO).

Although not a specialized agency, the International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA) is an autonomous intergovernmental organization under the aegis of
the UN.
The UN and its specialized agencies make up the UN system of
organizations.
For further information about the UN, please contact:

Public Inquiries
UN Secretariat
Room GA-58
New York, NY 10017
USA

or the Information Centre in your country.

The United Nations is an organization of sovereign nations not a world
government. It provides the machinery to help find solutions to disputes or
problems, and to deal with virtually any matter of concern to humanity.